UGC NET Physical Education Unit 6 Notes | Health Education 2024

Last updated on July 14th, 2024 at 05:52 am

UGC NET Physical Education unit 6 notes

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Health ducation

Health

Traditional view – absence of disease, pain or disability

Contemporary view (WHO) – achievement of
Physical well-being
Mental well-being
Social well-being

What is Wellness?

The constant and deliberate effort to stay healthy and achieve the highest potential for well-being.
Living a lifestyle that optimizes all aspects of health.

Difference between Health, Wellness and Fitness

• Health – Simply means free from diseases and living a healthy life. It is a quality of life, a state of mind in an ideal condition.

• Fitness – Fitness means Physical Fitness condition in which the individual is truly supposed to be functionally efficient and effective.

• Wellness – It is an overall balance of your physical, social, spiritual, emotional, intellectual, environment and occupational well-being.

– Wellness reflects both health and fitness.

Benefits of a Wellness Lifestyle

• To the Nation
– Reduction in health care costs
– Maintenance of productive workforce

• To the individual
– Reduced health care costs
– Increased longevity
– Increased quality of life

Physical Activity vs Exercise

Physical Activity – bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure and produces progressive health benefits

Exercise – a type of physical activity that is planned and structured with the intent of improving or maintaining physical fitness.

Principles of Physical Training

• Specificity
• Progression
• Overload
• Reversibility
• Tedium
• Individual differences

Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases

Communicable Diseases

A communicable disease is an illness due to a specific infectious (biological) agent or its toxic products capable of being directly or indirectly transmitted from man to man, from animal to man, from animal to animal, or from the environment (through air, water, food, etc..) to man.

Another Definition

Communicable disease: a disease that can be spread to a person from another person, an animal or object. Ex: common cold, influenza, tuberculosis, etc.

Non-communicable disease is a disease that can NOT be spread from person to person. Ex: cancer, heart disease, cirrhosis, etc.

Common Pathogens:
Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi & Protozoa

Virus: smallest simplest life form. Not alive, and causes upper respiratory infections and many other type of diseases.

Bacteria: simple one-celled organisms. They are everywhere. Not all bacteria is bad.

Fungi: more complex than bacteria, but cannot make their own food. Thrive in warm, moist environments.

Protozoa: one celled, animal-like organism.

Communicable versus non-communicable diseases

Communicable diseases

• Sudden onset
• Single cause
• Short natural history
• Short treatment schedule
• Cure is achieved
• Single discipline
• Short follow up
• Back to normalcy

Non-communicable diseases

• Gradual onset
• Multiple causes
• Long natural history
• Prolonged treatment
• Care predominates
• Multidisciplinary
• Prolonged follow up
• Quality of life after treatment

Direct

CD- Modes of transmissionDirect

Blood-borne or sexual – HIV, Hepatitis B,C

Inhalation – Tuberculosis, influenza, anthrax

Food-borne – E.coli, Salmonella,

Contaminated water- Cholera, rotavrus, Hepatitis A

Indirect

• Vector-borne- malaria, trypanosomiasis
• Fomites
• Zoonotic diseases – animal handling and feeding practices (Mad cow disease, Avian Influenza)

How are pathogens spread

• Direct Contact hands and skin ex: Scabies
• Indirect Contact coughs, sneezes, expelling pathogens in the air ex: flu
• Contact with animals or insects – animal and insect bites ex: Lyme’s disease (ticks) – chills, fever, headaches, discomfort, a skin eruption, and inflammation with swelling of the joints.
• Other contacts such as contaminated food or water. Ex: Salmonellosis – infection of the digestive tract. Sharp pain, fever, and bloody, watery diarrhea that occur 6 to 48 hours after eating. Nausea and vomiting are common.

Epidemiologic triad

Few Important Terminologies related to Communicable Diseases…

1. Infection

Infection is the entry and development or multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animals. An infection does not always cause illness.

There are several levels of infection (Gradients of infection):

• Colonization (S. aureus in skin and normal nasopharynx)
• Subclinical or inapparent infection (polio)
• Latent infection (virus of herpes simplex)
• Manifest or clinical infection

2. Contamination
   The presence of an infectious agent on a body surface, on or in clothes, beddings, toys, surgical instruments or dressings, or other articles or substances including water and food.
3. Infestation

It is the lodgment, development and reproduction of arthropods on the surface of the body or in the clothing, e.g. lice, itch mite. This term could be also used to describe the invasion of the gut by parasitic worms, e.g. ascariasis.

4. Contagious disease

A contagious disease is the one that is transmitted through contact. Examples include scabies, trachoma, STD and leprosy.

5. Vector of infection

An insect or any living carrier that transports an infectious agent from an infected individual or its wastes to a susceptible individual or its food or immediate surroundings. Both biological and mechanical transmissions are encountered.

6. Reservoir

Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or substance, or a combination of these, in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies, on which it depends primarily for survival, and where it reproduces itself in such a manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible host. It is the natural habitat of the infectious agent.

7. Epidemic

“The unusual occurrence in a community of disease, specific health related behavior, or other health related events clearly in excess of expected occurrence”
(epi= upon; demos= people)
Epidemics can occur upon endemic states too.

8. Endemic

It refers to the constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population group. It is the usual or expected frequency of disease within a population.
(En = in; demos = people)

9. Pandemic

An epidemic usually affects a large proportion of the population, occurring over a wide geographic area such as a section of a nation, the entire nation, a continent or the world, e.g. Influenza pandemics.

10. Exotic

Exotic diseases are those which are imported into a country in which they do not otherwise occur, as for example, rabies in the UK.

11. Sporadic

The word sporadic means “scattered about”. The cases occur irregularly, haphazardly from time to time, and generally infrequently. The cases are few and separated widely in time and place so that they show no or little connection with each other, nor a recognizable common source of infection.

However, a sporadic disease could be the starting point of an epidemic when the conditions are favorable for its spread.

12. Nosocomial infections

Nosocomial (hospital acquired) infection is an infection originating in a patient while in a hospital or another health care facility. It has to be a new disorder unrelated to the patient’s primary condition. Examples include infection of surgical wounds, hepatitis B and urinary tract infections.

13. Opportunistic infection

This is infection by organisms that take the opportunity provided by a defect in host defense (e.g. immunity) to infect the host and thus cause disease. For example, opportunistic infections are very common in AIDS. Organisms include Herpes simplex, cytomegalovirus,
M. tuberculosis….

Incubation and Latent periods

Incubation period: The period between exposure and onset of clinical symptoms is called ’incubation period’.

Latent period: the period between exposure and the onset of infectiousness. Since the pathogen is present in a ’latent’ stage, without clinical symptoms or signs of infection in the host.

Dynamics of disease Transmission (Chain of Infection)

Source or Reservoir —> Modes of transmission —> Susceptible host

I. Carriers

It occurs either due to inadequate treatment or immune response, the disease agent is not completely eliminated, leading to a carrier state.

It is “an infected person or animal that harbors a specific infectious in the absence of clinical diseases and serve as a potential source of infection to other.

(II) Modes of transmission

• Direct transmission
• Direct contact
• Droplet infection
• Contact with soil
• Inoculation into skin or mucosa Trans-placental (vertical)

Indirect Transmission

• Vehicle-borne
• Vector-borne
• Mechanical
• Biological
• propagative
• Cyclo-prop.
• Cyclo-develop
• Air-borne
• Fomite-born
• Unclean hands and fingers

(III) Susceptible host

An infectious agent seeks a susceptible host aiming “successful parasitism”.

Four stages are required for successful parasitism:

• Portal of entry
• Site of election in the body
• Portal of exit
• Survival in external environments

Common Communicable Diseases

1. The common cold is a respiratory infection caused by over 200 different viruses. Symptoms include congestion, sore throat and cough. It can be spread through direct and indirect contact.

Treatment includes rest, liquids and over the counter medications. Prevention techniques include handwashing and avoiding contact with infected persons.

2. Smallpox (virus)

Disease is caused due to small pathogens which are known as “ virolla virus”
Incubation period- 7 to 17 days

3. Cholera (bacteria)

• It is a intestinal infection caused by intake of contaminated food and water with a bacterium vibrio cholerae
• Two type of vaccine
  Non Valent
  Bivalent
• Range from a few hours to 5 days
• Average is 1-3 days

3. Dengue (virus)

Dengue is a mosquito-borne disease flavi- virus found in tropical & sub- tropical region of the world, mostly in urban
Day biting Aedes mosquitoes spread this
Incubation period- 4 to 10 days.
The first dengue vaccine, dengvaxia by sanofi pasteur.

5. Diphtheria (bacteria)

Is caused by corynebacterium diphtheriae bacterium
It primarily infects the throat and upper airways & produces toxins in other organs.

6. Hepatitis A (HAV), B (HBV) (Virus)

It is a liver disease, acutely called epidemic jaundice caused by HAV.
Incubation period- 14 to 28 days.
Hepatitis B
It causes liver failure, liver cirrhosis & liver cancer.
It is chronic as well as acute, called (serum hepatitis) caused by HBV.
Incubation period – 1.5 to 6 months.

Hepatitis E(Virus)
Acute liver failure
Mainly occur through the continued drinking water.
There is no vaccine.

Hepatitis C– is associated with blood transfusion. Incubation period- 14 to 180 days

7. Influenza (bacteria)

Also known as haemophilus. more commonly called “flu”, is a respiratory infection caused by several groups of viruses.
It is responsible for sever pneumonia.
It is a respiratory disease.it is also called plague.
Incubation period- 1 to 4 days.
Symptoms include high fever, fatigue, muscle and joint aches. It is spread through direct contact with infected people and water droplets in the air from coughs and sneezes.

Treatment includes rest, liquids, and over the counter medications. Prevention includes avoiding contact with infected persons and vaccines.

8. Tuberculosis(Bacteria) Caused by tubercle bacillus, mycobacterium.
   World deadliest communicable disease.
   Incubation period- 2 to 2 weeks
   Vaccine- BCG( Bacille Calmatte Guerin).
   2 billion people infected with microbes that cause TB.
   Not everyone develops active disease
   A person is infected every second globally
   22 countries account for 80% of TB cases.

50% cases in Asia, 28% in Africa (which also has the highest per capita prevalence)
In 2005, there were 8.8 million new TB cases; 1.6 million deaths from TB (about 4400 a day)
Highly stigmatizing disease

9. Tuberculosis and HIV

A third of those living with HIV are co-infected with TB
About 200,000 people with HIV die annually from TB.
Most common opportunistic infection in Africa
70% of TB patients are co-infected with HIV in some countries in Africa

Impact of HIV on TB

• TB is harder to diagnose in HIV-positive people.
• TB progresses faster in HIV-infected people.
• TB in HIV-positive people is almost certain to be fatal if undiagnosed or left untreated.
• TB occurs earlier in the course of HIV infection than many other opportunistic infections.

10. Malaria(parasite)

This is caused by mosquito namely anopheles
Genus plasmodium (p vivex virus)
Every year, 500 million people become severely ill with malaria
causes 30% of Low birth weight in newborns Globally.

1 million people die of malaria every year. One child dies from it every 30 seconds
40% of the world’s population is at risk of malaria. Most cases and deaths occur in SSA.
Malaria is the 9th leading cause of death in LICs and MICs
11% of childhood deaths worldwide attributable to malaria
SSA children account for 82% of malaria deaths worldwide

12. Measles (viral)
    Measles is a highly contagious viral disease among young children
    Incubation period – 10 to 12 days.
13. Mumps (infection virus)
    It is sometimes called infection parotitis.
    It affect salivary glands. generally after 5-9 years old.
    It also causes- menisgities, orcalitis and deafness. very rarely it causes encephalitis and per neurological damage.
14. Pertussis (bacteria)
    Caused by Bordetella pertussis, a bacteria that lives in the mouth, nose, throat.
    Disease of a respiratory tract.
    It also causes complications.
    Paroxysmal cough- Whooping cough, bronchiectasis or lung injury.
    Apnoea- temporary cessation of breathing, especially during sleep.
    Pneumonia
    Seizures– a disorder in which brain cells is disturbed. It is not a disease, it is a symptom of many other diseases.
    Encephalopathy – disease affects your brain. It is a coughing spell.
15. Polio (poliomyelitis) (virus)

It invades the nervous system. Causes paralysis in the matter of hours.

i. No cure for polio
ii. Only type 1 vaccine is being used .
Incubation Period- 7 to 21 Days.

16. Rabies (virus) lyssa virus type 1
    Also known as hydrophobia.
    It is a zoonotic viral disease which infects domestic & wild animals.
    Affect the central nervous system of warm blooded animals. Particularly mammals.
    Incubation period- 3 to 8 week (2 to 3 month).
17. Retrovirus

It is the most common cause of severe diarrhoeal disease in young children. throughout the world.
Incubation period- approximately 2 days.

18. Rubella (virus)
    This infection just before conception and is early pregnancy may result is miscarriage.
    incubation period- 12 to 23 days.
19. Typhoid ( virus)
    Intestinal fever
    Systemic infection caused by salmonella typhi, usually through injection of contaminated food or water.
    Acute illness, prolonged level
    Vaccine= vi- ps, TY 21
    Incubation period – 8 to 14 days.
20. Tetanus (bacteria)
    Clostridium tetani virus
    Caused when the wound is exposed to air and bacteria goes inside the wound.
    Incubation period- range 3 to 21 days.
    average – 10 days.
21. Yellow fever (virus)
    Mosquito borne viral disease of humans. Also called jaundice.
    The flavivirus causes yellow fever.
    can’t spread through man to man but by mosquitos (female name aedes aegypti)
    Incubation period- 3 to 16 days.
22. Varicella or chickenpox (virus)
    It is caused by primary infection with the varicella- zoster virus (VZV)
    Affect everyone at the middle age.
    Incubation period- 14 to 16 days.
23. Plague– spread by rats known as epigutic.
    Incubation period- 2 to 6 days.
24. Chicken pox
    V-Z virus (varicella zester)
    Incubation period- 14 to 16 days
25. Leprosy (bacterial)
    Hansen’s disease
    Mycobacterium leprae bacteria
    Incubation period- 2 to 10 years.
    Caused by leprosy bacillus germs.
    It has bumps on skin and nerve damage.
    Diamino diaphary sulphone is the main medicine.
26. Ringworm (fungal infection)
    This disease is spread by fingers.
    The germ which generates this disease is called “tinea”.

Some other terms –

1. Delirium– an acute disturbed state of mind.
2. Struma– swelling of the thyroid gland.
3. Scrofula– infection in neck lymphs nodes. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

• Chlamydia
• Gonorrhea
• Genital Herpes
• Syphilis
• HIV/AIDS

Prevention

Ways to prevent Infectious Disease
– Getting enough sleep, avoiding alcohol/cigarettes, and eating a healthy diet.
– Getting vaccines when available.
– Staying away from disease carrying animals or food/water that is dirty.

Personal Responsibility and action

. Improved hygiene and sanitation
Hand washing, proper waste disposal, food preparation and handling.
. Information, education and behavior change
Changing harmful household practices
Livestock handling, knowledge about contagion
. Cultural and social norms
. Self reporting of illnesses and compliance with interventions and treatment.

Non Communicable Diseases

Noncommunicable diseases are the leading killer today and are on the increase.

Nearly 80% of these deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries.
NCDs are largely preventable by means of effective interventions that tackle shared risk factors, namely: tobacco use, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and harmful use of alcohol.

NCDs are not only a health problem but a development challenge as well.
Around the world, NCDs affect
women and men almost equally.

1. Cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease is caused by disorders of the heart and blood vessels, and includes coronary heart disease (heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease (stroke), raised blood pressure (hypertension), peripheral artery disease, rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart disease and heart failure.

Although heart attacks and strokes are major killers in all parts of the world, 80% of premature deaths from these causes could be avoided by controlling the main risk factors: tobacco, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity.

2. Cancer

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and spread of cells that arises from a change in one single cell. The change may be started by external agents and inherited genetic factors and can affect almost any part of the body.

The transformation from a normal cell into a tumor cell is a multistage process where growths often invade surrounding tissue and can metastasize to distant sites.

Cancer: Interaction between a person’s genetic
factors and any of three categories of external agents physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation or asbestos;
chemical carcinogens, such as vinyl chloride, or beta ethylamine (both rated by the International Agency for Research into Cancer as carcinogenic), components of tobacco smoke, aflatoxin (a food contaminant) and arsenic (a drinking-water contaminant); and
biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria or parasites.

Cancer:
risk factors for cancer

• tobacco use
• unhealthy diet
• insufficient physical activity

• the harmful use of alcohol
• Infections (hepatitis B, hepatitis C (liver cancer), human papillomavirus (HPV; cervical cancer), Helicobacter pylori (stomach cancer)

Radiation
variety of environmental and occupational exposures of varying importance

3. Chronic respiratory diseases:

Quick facts and figures

Survey data from 2005–20015 indicate that over half of all children aged 13–15 years in many countries in the European Region are exposed to second-hand tobacco smoke at home.

Second-hand smoke causes severe respiratory health problems in children, such as asthma and reduced lung function; and asthma is now the most common chronic disease among children throughout the Region.

According to the latest available data for 2000– 2016, over 12% of infant deaths in the world are due to respiratory diseases.

Indoor air pollution from biological agents related to damp and mold increases the risk of respiratory disease in children and adults.

Children are particularly susceptible to the health effects of dampness, which include respiratory disorders such as irritation of the respiratory tract, allergies and exacerbation of asthma.

Damp is often associated with poor housing and social conditions, poor indoor air quality and inadequate housing hygiene.

4. Diabetes

Diabetes is a chronic disease that occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin (a hormone that regulates blood sugar) or alternatively, when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.

The overall risk of dying among people with diabetes is at least double the risk of their peers without diabetes.

There is an emerging global epidemic of diabetes that can be traced back to rapid increases in overweight, obesity and physical inactivity.

Diabetes: Health implications
Elevated blood sugar is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes, and over time can damage the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.
Some health complications from diabetes include:
Diabetic retinopathy
Diabetic neuropathy
Diabetes is among the leading causes of kidney failure; 10-20% of people with diabetes die of kidney failure.
Diabetes increases the risk of heart disease and stroke; 50% of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease (primarily heart disease and stroke).

Diabetes: Control

People with type 1 diabetes require insulin; people with type 2 diabetes can be treated with oral medication, but may also require insulin.
Blood pressure control
Foot care

Other cost saving interventions include:

Screening and treatment for retinopathy (which causes blindness);
Blood lipid control (to regulate cholesterol levels);
Screening for early signs of diabetes- related kidney disease and treatment.
These measures should be supported by a healthy diet, regular physical activity, maintaining a normal body weight and avoiding tobacco use.

Obesity

• Obesity is one of the greatest public health challenges of the 21st century. Its prevalence has tripled in many countries of the WHO European Region since the 1980s, and the numbers of those affected continue to rise at an alarming rate, particularly among children.
• In addition to causing various physical disabilities and psychological problems, excess weight drastically increases a person’s risk of developing a number of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes.

The risk of developing more than one of these diseases (co- morbidity) also increases with increasing body weight.

Obesity

• Overweight and obesity are defined as “abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health“
• Body mass index (BMI) – the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters (kg/m2) – is a commonly used index to classify overweight and obesity in adults.WHO defines overweight as a BMI equal to or more than 25, and obesity as a BMI equal to or more than 30.

Noncommunicable diseases:
Current status and trends in risk factors

• Common, preventable risk factors underlie most NCDs.These risk factors are a leading cause of the death and disability burden in nearly all countries, regardless of economic development.
• The leading risk factor globally for mortality is:
  raised blood pressure (responsible for 13% of deaths globally),
  followed by tobacco use (9%),
  raised blood glucose (6%),
  physical inactivity (6%),
  overweight and obesity (5%).

Noncommunicable diseases:
Prevention and Control of NCDs

Millions of deaths can be prevented by stronger implementation of measures that exist today.

These include policies that promote government- wide action against NCDs:
stronger anti-tobacco controls
promoting healthier diets,
physical activity,
reducing harmful use of alcohol;
along with improving people’s access to essential health care.

Types of Drugs

There are seven different drug types, and each has its own set of effects and risks:

• Stimulants
• Depressants
• Hallucinogens
• Dissociatives
• Opioids
• Inhalants
• Cannabis

1) Stimulants

• Stimulants (or “uppers”) impact the body’s central nervous system (CNS), causing the user to feel as if they are “speeding up.” These drugs increase the user’s level of alertness, pumping up heart rate, blood pressure, breathing and blood glucose levels.

• The drugs can also help aid weight loss, as they can decrease appetite in users.

The drugs can also help aid weight loss, as they can decrease appetite in users.

Risks of Stimulant Abuse

When abused, stimulants can cause a variety of undesirable consequences. These effects can include:

• Anxiety
• Paranoia
• Psychosis
• High body temperature
• Depression
• Heart failure
• Stroke
• Caffeine
• Seizures

Examples of stimulants include:

• Adderall
• Ritalin
• Synthetic Marijuana
• Cocaine
• Methamphetamine
• Ecstasy

2) Depressants

Like stimulants, depressants also impact the body’s CNS, but with the opposite effect, making users feel as if things are “slowing down.” Thus, they are often called “downers” on the street.

Doctors prescribe some depressants for anxiety, insomnia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and other medical issues that prevent the sufferer from fully relaxing.

Examples of depressants include:

• Rohypnol
• Barbiturates
• Xanax
• Valium
• Benzodiazepines

Risks of Depressant Abuse

Depressants can be useful when used properly, but depressant abuse can cause a host of issues in both the long and short term:

• Higher risk of high blood sugar, diabetes and weight gain
• Increased body temperature
• Delirium
• Sluggish thinking
• Low blood pressure
• Impaired memory
• Hallucinations
• Death from withdrawal

3) Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens work by disrupting communication within the brain. Users report intense, rapidly shifting emotions and perceptions of things that aren’t really there. For example, a hallucinogen user might believe that they see a person speaking to them — when that person does not even exist.

Hallucinogens come in many forms, which can be smoked, eaten, ingested as pills and even mixed into beverages:

LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
Psilocybin
Salvia
Peyote

Risks of Hallucinogen Abuse

Hallucinogen abuse can have devastating effects that can last a lifetime:

Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder, also known as flashbacks
Fear
Distorted cognition
Paranoia
Psychosis
Anxiety
Increased blood pressure
Nausea

4) Dissociatives
Dissociatives distort the user’s perception of reality, and cause users to “dissociate,” or feel as if they are watching themselves from outside their own bodies. They may gain a false sense of invincibility, then engage in risky behavior such as driving under the influence or unsafe sex.

These drugs work by interfering with the brain’s receptors for the chemical glutamate, which plays a significant role in cognition, emotionality and pain perception. Dissociatives can be taken as liquids, powders, solids or gases. The drugs include:

Ketamine
DXM (Dextromethorphan)
PCP (phencyclidine)

5) Opioids
These are powerful painkillers that produce a sense of euphoria in users. Derived from the poppy plant, opioids are often prescribed by doctors to patients who are suffering from intense pain.

They are extremely habit-forming, sometimes even causing addiction in as little as three days.
Examples of opioids include:

• Heroin
• Morphine
• Hydrocodone
• Opium
• Vicodin
• Oxycontin
• Percocet
• Codeine

Risks of Opioid Abuse

Opioid abuse can devastate the life of a user. Unfortunately, when someone decides to stop using opioids, they suffer tremendously then, as well. For example, hydrocodone withdrawal can be especially nasty, riddlings sufferers of flu-like symptoms for weeks on end. Other effects include:

• Constipation
• Liver damage
• Brain impairment
• Euphoria
• Drowsiness
• Sedation
• Pupil dilation
• Cardiac arrest (if dose is too high)

6) Inhalants
Mostly made up of everyday household items, these drugs cause brief feelings of euphoria. As the name suggests, inhalants are always inhaled as gasses or fumes. The “highs” slightly differ from inhalant to inhalant, but most abusers are willing to huff whatever inhalant they can acquire.

Examples of inhalants include:

Fumes of markers, paint, paint thinner, gasoline and glue
Nitrous oxide
Aerosol sprays
Room deodorizers

7) Cannabis
Most commonly recognized as marijuana, cannabis acts like a hallucinogen, but also produces depressant-like effects. It is a Schedule I drug (i.e. it has a high potential for addiction)

Examples of cannabis include:

Marijuana leaves
Hashish
Hash oil
Cannabis-based medicines, such as Sativex

Risks of Cannabis Abuse

Cannabis abuse can destroy lives and can have both short- and long-term impacts on users:

• Lowered immunity to illness
• Depression
• Chronic anxiety
• Reduced sperm count in men
• Sedation
• Slowed reaction times
• Enhanced senses, such as seeing brighter colors
• Impaired sense of time

Ergogenic Aids

Performance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PED), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.

A well-known example involves doping in sport, where banned physical performance– enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders.
Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids.
Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics.

Why Athletes and Exercisers Take Drugs –

Physical reasons

Psychological reasons

Social Reasons

Types of Ergogenic Aids

I. Mechanical– Running shoes, nasal breathing strips, equipment innovations, artificial turf, etc.

II. Pharmacological– Beta blockers, antihistamines, growth hormone,Erythropoietin, anabolic-androgenic steroids, caffeine, amphetamines, -methylbutyrate (HMB),-hydroxy-
ephedrine, Androstenedione, Dehydroepiandrosterone, etc.

III. Physiological– Blood doping, saline infusion, warm-up, clothing, etc.

IV. Psychological– Hypnosis, psychotherapy, imagery, etc.

V. Nutritional –

Metabolic fuels carbohydrate, protein, pyruvate, lactate, fat, caffeine, branched chain amino acids, etc.
Limiting cellular components creatine, carnitine, vitamins, phosphate, NaHCO3 – , etc.
Anabolic or stimulatory substances protein, chromium, vanadium, dichloroacetate, ephedrine, -methylbutyrate (HMB), Androstenedione,-hydroxy-Dehydroepiandrostenedione, caffeine, etc.D.Anti-Catabolic -methylbutyrate (HMB), etc.

Ergogenic Aids Currently banned substances by IOC

• Psychomotor stimulants – Amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate
• Sympathomimetic amines- Ephedrine, isoprenaline
• Other stimulants- Caffeine (above certain levels), doxapram, strychnine
• Anabolic steroids
• Other hormones- Growth hormone, erythropoietin
• Narcotic analgesics- Codeine, heroin, morphine
• Masking agents and diuretics

Various Types of Drugs

1) Anabolic Steroids

Definition– Natural or synthetic derivatives of testosterone that are responsible for the masculinizing and muscle-building responses in the body.

Types of Anabolic Steroids
– Orally active
Medically used for maintaining secondary sexual characteristics- dose of 15mg/day Athletes may use dosages of 300mg/day.
Examples: Dianabol, Anavar, Anadrol.

– Injectables
Clinically used for rare diseases and men with low sperm counts -typical dosage of 250mg/wk for up to 6 months.
Athletes may use dosages of 1,000mg or more per wk.
Some Injectables stay in body for 1.5 days and others up to 3 months from single injection.

Anabolic Steroids Effects:
– Increase lean body mass in both men and women.
– Increase water retention.
– No substantial proof that anaerobic performance is improved.
– No proven benefit to aerobic athletes.
– Increased aggressiveness.
– Health risks including abnormal cholesterol profiles, liver tumors, temporary infertility, and increased skin problems (e.g. acne).

2) Human Chronic Gonadotropin

Obtained from urine of pregnant women
Increases testicular testosterone production; may later lead to desensitization in testes May stimulate estrogen production leading to development of female characteristics Used by some to reduce body fat.

3) Erythropoietin

A naturally produced protein hormone by the kidneys. Stimulates production of red blood cells.
Increases in response to endurance exercise. Administration of recombinant Epo results in:
– Increase in hematocrit (# of rbc’s)
– Increase in hemoglobin
– Increase in aerobic performance
– Risk of blood thickening, ↑systolic b.p., ↑heart problems potentially leading to heart failure.

• EPO is widely used by elite endurance athletes, but has caused deaths due to organ damage resulting from excessive increases in blood viscosity.

4) Beta-Adrenergic Agonists
Chemical substances related to epinephrine.

Effects:
– Used to treat asthma and other life-threatening medical conditions
– Increase in lean body mass
– Decrease in stored fat

Dosage –
Taken by athletes in dosages of 20-60ug/day in 2-week cycles (avoid desensitization resulting in ineffectiveness)

Side effects not well established, however:
– May lead to sleeplessness, nervousness, and increased heart rate

5) Caffeine & Other Stimulants

– Potential benefits:
Delay fatigue Increase alertness
Produce euphoric “sense”

– Caffeine (1 c of coffee contains ~ 120mg)
More than 3 cups of coffee prior to competition would probably exceed limit of 12 ug/ml (set by IOC)
Less than 3 cups can benefit endurance performance

– Due to its ability to increase availability of fatty acids Potential problem → diuresis leading to dehydration
The IOC initially banned caffeine in 1962, then removed it from list in 1972.

Today, urinary caffeine g/L is an IOC>12 infringement. (NCAA g/L)>15.

6) Amphetamines

It acts on the cerebral cortex by releasing monoamines from nerve terminals. High dose increase the level of noradrenaline and dopamine (neuro-transmitter release be medulla).

It provides an illusion that the player is doing better but actually not.

Benefits –

• Increase work capacity.
• Increase the concentration.
• Decrease mental fatigue.
• Increase self confidence.
• Help the athlete run faster
• Jump higher and throw further.

Harmful effects:
Heart attack
It is very dangerous drug athlete can even die.(sudden death)
It causes dizziness and a feeling of depression.
It increase mental confusion

7) Beta-blockers

Beta-blockers,also known as beta adrenergic blocking agents. Used for cardiac arrhythmias and to protect the heart from a second heart attack.

It primarily blocks the B1 and B2 receptors and thereby the effects of norepinephrine and epinephrine. By blocking the effects of norepinephrine and epinephrine, beta-blockers reduces the heart rate, reduce blood pressure.

Benefits:
Alertness
Increase concentration
Reduce high blood pressure.

Harmful effects

• Depression
• Hypertension
• Dizziness
• Upset stomach
• Headaches
• Nervousness
• Sweating
• Nausea
• Vomiting

8) Diuretics

Diuretics are the drugs used by the athletes for losing their body weight.
Used by athletes in weight category sports.
It increases the rate of urine formation. Diuretics acts directly on kidney tubules to produce clinical effects. Used in weight loss.

Benefits:
It is generally use for weight control.
They are also used to flush other drugs out of peoples systems.

Harmful effects:
Body loses vital salts
Dehydration
Loose motion
Restlessness
Dizziness

9) Narcotics Analgesics

Also called OPIATES, Pain-killers. Derived from a poppy plant. This group consists of powerful painkilling drugs.

It is used to minimize the pain called as a pain-killer used by many athletes. They relieve the pain by binding opioid receptors in the brain and the other parts of the body.

Various drugs of this category are – Morphine, codeine, heroin, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone and oxymorphone, etc.,

10) Creatine

– With supplementation, concentrations are higher in the muscle.
– Shown to enhance performance by 5-7% in short-duration, high intensity events.
– ATP levels are more readily maintained and not depleted as quickly with muscle contraction.

Uses
– Faster recoveries from intense exercise have been shown
– If taken as creatine monohydrate in dosage of 20g/day, high levels of creatine can be maintained in muscle for several weeks
– CHO intake can improve muscle creatine uptake
– Short term risks seem to be minimal except for digestive system disturbances, and other related symptoms.

Dosage –

• Creatine is the main component of creatine phosphate. Creatine is found in meat and fish (mixed diet provides about 1 g/day), but is also synthesized in the liver, pancreas, & kidneys (1 g/day, which is suppressed with supplementation).
• Creatine • Dietary supplementation of creatine of at least 15 – 25 g/day for 2-7 days can increase muscle creatine by 20 – 30%. (~ 20% is in CrP form) • Physiological benefits inconsistently reported in research and changes are not large. • Some detriment – increased body water (weight), muscle cramping, possible renal damage from long term high intake.

1. L-Carnitine
   – Essential for transport of free fatty acids into mitochondria
   – Found primarily in heart & skeletal muscle
   – As supplement, difficult to absorb
   Not proven to be effective in sport performance
   – May provide benefits of keeping growth hormone in the system longer by the increased availability of binding proteins in the blood (from an article discussed in class).

Carnitine– Molecule that transports fatty acids into mitochondria. Research indicates that carnitine provides no ergogenic benefit.

8. Vitamins
   – Not found to be sport “enhancers”.
   – Vitamins C and E are considered as antioxidants which may help reduce tissue damage from exercise.
   One study suggested reduction of altitude stress and improvement in time to exhaustion with Vitamin E supplementation.
   Other studies have suggested a decrease in DOMS (delayed-onset muscle soreness).
   – Supplementation could lead to toxic conditions or simply waste of money.
9. Glycerol
   Ingestion of ~1.2 g glycerol/kg body mass with sufficient volumes of water (26 mL/kg) can induce an increase in hydration, termed hyperhydration. Increased hydration can improve cardiovascular function and thermoregulation during conditions where dehydration is inevitable.
10. Phosphate – Some evidence for increased VO2max and VT.
11. Sodium Bicarbonate– Increases blood bicarbonate and buffering potential. Increases performance during intense intermittent exercise.
12. Blood Doping

Blood doping is the misuse of certain techniques and/or substances to increase one’s red blood cell mass, which allows the body to transport more oxygen to muscles and therefore increase stamina and performance.

What are the most widely known types of blood doping?

There are three widely known substances or methods used for blood doping, namely, erythropoietin (EPO), synthetic oxygen carriers and blood transfusions.

EPO (mentioned above)

Synthetic oxygen – These are chemicals that have the ability to carry oxygen. Two examples are:
HBOCs (hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers)
PFCs (perfluorocarbons)

Blood transfusion – Blood transfusions. In normal medical practice, patients may undergo blood transfusions to replace blood lost due to injury or surgery. Transfusions also are given to patients who suffer from low red blood cell counts caused by anemia, kidney failure, and other conditions or treatments.

NOTE – Each is prohibited under WADA’s List of Prohibited Substances and Methods.

The removal of 1-4 units of blood (1 unit = 450 ml of blood) , storage of the blood for 4-8 weeks are stored refrigerated at 4 °C or frozen at −80 °C, The freezing process, conversely, limits the aging of the cells, allowing the storage of the blood for up to 10 years with a 10% to 15% loss of RBCs and the reinfusion of the red blood cells.

Reinfusion usually occurs 1 to 7 days before a high-endurance event.

This can produce an increase in RBC mass of up to 10%, whereas it may take many months of natural training to increase it by just 5%..
Blood doping can double the [Hb], but typically this causes too much of an increase in blood viscosity.

Average blood in human body –

The amount of blood in the human body is generally equivalent to 7 percent of body weight.
• Babies: Babies born full-term have about 75 milliliters (mL) of blood per kilogram of their body weight. If a baby weighs about 8 pounds, they’ll have about 270 mL of blood in their body, or 0.07 gallons.

• Children: The average 80-pound child will have about 2,650 mL of blood in their body, or 0.7 gallons.

• Adults: The average adult weighing 150 to 180 pounds should have about 1.2 to 1.5 gallons of blood in their body. This is about 4,500 to 5,700 mL.

• Pregnant women: To support their growing babies, pregnant women usually have anywhere from 30 to 50 percent more blood volume than women who are not pregnant. This is about 0.3 to 0.4 additional gallons of blood.

Rehabilitation

Meaning –
Rehabilitation is the restoration of optimal form (anatomy) and function (physiology).
The noun rehabilitation comes from the Latin prefix re-, meaning “again” and habitare, meaning “make fit”.

Purpose –
It is a process designed to mi imize the loss associated with acute injury or chronic disease, to promote recovery, and to maximize functional capacity, fitness and performance.

Sports Injuries
Musculoskeletal injuries are an inevitable result of sport participation. Football has the highest incidence of catastrophic injuries, with gymnastics and ice hockey close behind.
Tissue injury from sports can be
micro-traumatic.

Macro-traumatic injuries are usually due to a strong force – such a a fall, accident, collision or laceration – and are more common in contact sports such as football and rugby.

Micro-traumatic injuries are chronic injuries that result from overuse of a structure such as a muscle, joint, ligament, or tendon This type of injury is more common in sports such as swimming, cycling and rowing.

When to start the rehabilitation process?

The process of rehabilitation should start as early as possible after an injury and form a continuum with other therapeutic interventions. It can also start before or immediately after surgery when an injury requires a surgical intervention

Difference between Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is the process of returning the patient to their original condition. It ca
be defined as restoring the condition of good health, or ability to work or the same whereas,

Physiotherapy or physical therapy is a type or rehabilitation that can be included in the rehab plan to help in regaining the body strength Rehabilitation is a broad term in which physiotherapy also comes.

Physiotherapy is mostly focused on movement of body organs and body strength
Rehabilitation mainly covers overall functioning of the body.
Hence, Physiotherapy is actually under the umbrella of physical rehabilitation.

What about Occupational Therapy?

There are some technical differences between physical therapy and occupationa therapy, too. The word “occupational” may suggest that this type of therapy i only work-related. But an OT’s job is to assess the entire range of skills an activities needed to perform daily functions.

Goals for Rehabilitation:

• Preserve structural integrity.
• Provide an environment conductive to tissue healing.
• Restore joint range of otion.
• Increase muscular strength
• Restore proprioception.
• Maintain and increase cardiovascular aerobic capacity.
• Enhance coordinated sport specific tasks.

Principles

Principles are the foundation upon which rehabilitation is based. Here are seven principles of rehabilitation, mnemonic: ATC IS IT.
A: Avoid aggravation. It is important not to aggravate the injury during the rehabilitation process. Therapeutic exercise, if administered incorrectly or without good judgment, has the potential to exacerbate the injury.

T: Timing. The therapeutic exercise portion of the rehabilitation program should begin as soon as possible—that is, as soon as it can occur without causing aggravation.

C: Compliance. Without a compliant patient, the rehabilitation program will not be successful. To ensure compliance, it is important to inform the patient of the content of the program and the expected course of rehabilitation.

I: Individualization. Each person resp nds differently to an injury and to th
subsequent rehabilitation program. Even though an injury may seem the same i type and severity as another, undetectable differences can change an individual’s response to it. Individual physiological and chemical differences profoundly affect
a patient’s specific responses to an injury

S: Specific sequencing. A therapeutic xercise program should follow a specifi sequence of events. This specific sequence is determined by the body’ physiological healing response.

I: Intensity. The intensity level of the therapeutic exercise program mus challenge the patient and the injured area but at the same time must not caus aggravation. Knowing when to increase intensity without overtaxing the injur requires observation of the patient’s r sponse and consideration of the healin
process.

T: Total patient. Treating the Whole Patient. It is important for the unaffecte areas of the body to stay finely tuned. This means keeping the cardiovascula system at a pre-injury level and aintaining range of motion, strength coordination, and muscle endurance of the uninjured limbs and joints.

Components of Exercise Prescription

. Types of exercise.
. Intensity of exercise.
. Duration of exercise.
. Frequency of exercise.
. Progression of exercise.

Four Phases of Rehabilitation

Phase I
Isometric exercise, Static stretching, Pain-Free (ROM)

Phase II
Isometric exercise, Open-Chain Activities, Therapeutic muscle stretching, Dynamic stretching walking.

Phase III
Strengthening exercise, Eccentric exercise, Closed-chain activities, Aerobic activity, Running or Throwing drills.

Phase IV
Dynamic Flexibility exercise, Sport-specific strengthening exercise, Agility drills, Plyometric training.

Objectives of School Health Services

The main objectives of this service is the prevention of illness as well as the promotion of health and well being of the students through:

• Early detection and care of students with health problems
• Development of healthy attitudes and healthy behaviors by students
• Ensure a healthy environment for children at school
• Prevention of communicable diseases at school

School Health Services are occupied:
Pediatricians and General Practitioners working in the Primary Health Care
Health Visitors partially or fully occupied in this service

Main Activities of School Health Service

The main activities of the School Health Service are:
Screening Tests

• Medical examination of all 1st and 4th grade students of the Elementary school and 1st and 4th grade students of Secondary school.
• Screening Tests carried out by Health Visitors are:
  Test for vision acuity (1st and 4th grade Elementary Students and 1st grade Secondary school students)

Hearing test (1st and 4th grade Elementary Students and 1st grade Secondary school students)

Follow up of students´ normal growth. Measurement of weight and height. The Health Visitors mark these measurements on percentile charts to give an indication of how a child compares at one particular time with other children of the same age.
Also to give a longitudinal representation of the children growth (It is done for 1st and 4th graders of Elementary School and 1st graders of Secondary School).

Color Vision Test (Students of 6th grade of Elementary school)

Scoliometer Is for early detection of deformities of the spinal cord, particularly scoliosis (5th and 6th grade students of Elementary school, all students of Gymnasium and 1st grade students of Lyceum)

Prevention and investigation of Communicable Diseases

o Health education of the school personnel in order to be able to take the necessary measures to prevent viral meningitis.

o In case of an outbreak of a communicable disease the Health Visitors apply the necessary measures in order to prevent spreading of the disease.

o The Health Visitor co-operates with other health professionals for the investigation of certain communicable diseases such as viral meningitis and tuberculosis.

Vaccinations
The Health Visitors give to students the routine vaccinations according to the existing vaccination program of the Ministry of Health.

The students as well as the parents are informed about a certain vaccine that will be given. In order to vaccinate a student at school it is necessary that the Health Visitor takes the parents or guardians written consent.

Health Education

Health education is provided by both Health Visitors and School Doctors. The main purpose of health education is to give students the knowledge but also the skills to develop and adapt a healthy behavior.

According to the international literature health education programs which involve active participation of students in education, are more effective than lectures. Based on that, two educational programmed courses for students of the Secondary school, have been applied for several years now.

The main Health Education topics are:

Educational programmed courses
For quite a few years now the Health Visitors have being applied two educational health programmed courses for the secondary school students.

One is the educational anti smoking programmed course for the students attending the first years of Secondary School (Gymnasium) and the educational programmed course for the prevention of HIV/AIDS and the sexually transmitted diseases for the students attending the last three years of Secondary School (Lyceum).

The main characteristics of these programmed courses is the training of some key students who in turn take over the training of their fellow students.

1. Anti- Smoking Educational Program
   For quite a few years now a pioneering educational programmed course is being applied to many Gymnasiums all over Cyprus.

The particularity of this program is based on the fact that the Health Visitor trains two students from each group. When the training is completed the two students undertake to present the lessons, in the presence of the Health Visitor, to their fellow students.

The aim of this program is:

• To offer some knowledge on the consequences of smoking on human health and generally to the human life (financial consequences, as well as social and environmental consequences).

• Through games and the acting roles the children develop a healthy attitude and behavior. At the same time they acquire those abilities, which are necessary for a young person of their age to resist the challenge to smoke.

2. Anti HIV/AIDS educational Programmed Course for Lyceum students
   For quite a few years now an anti-AIDS educational programmed course is being applied to Lyceum students.
   The scope of this course which is carried out by means of dialogue, games and through acting roles is:
3. To offer the students some knowledge on AIDS and the sexually transmitted diseases so that:
   They would be aware of the methods of contamination and protection and
   They would learn about the methods by which the virus is not transmitted so that they do not have false phobias about HIV people who are HIV positive.
4. The development of a healthy attitude and behavior and the acquisition of ways of resistance through various exercises, which are carried out.
5. To increase the children’s sensitivity to the consequences of AIDS.
6. Organizing Healthy Breakfasts
   The Health Visitors in collaboration with the school management teams and the Parents Associations organize the serving of healthy breakfast in Primary Schools.

An educational course regarding nutrition in general and the importance of breakfast in particular, always precedes the actual serving of the meal.

Other Activities

The Health Visitors cover the School Sports Days and the Camping Areas belonging to the Ministry of Education and Culture.

The Health Visitors cooperate with other departments in matters such as voluntary blood donation by Lyceum students.

They organize various activities in regard to temporary subjects.

Body Composition And Its Measurements

World health day – 7th April

World Environment Day – 5th June

World No Tobacco Day- 31 May

Word Cancer Day – 4th Feb

World AIDS Day – 1st December

WHO (World Health Organisation) – Established in 7th April in Geneva

NADA (National Anoti Doping Agency) – 24th may 2009

WADA (World Anti Doping Agency)- 10th November 1999, Moto – Play True

Chemical elements in the body are O2 (65%), Carbon (18%), Hydrogen (10%) and Nitrogen (3%), together they represent 96% of body weight and remaining 4% is of mineral elements.

Body fluids – 3/4th intra-cellular compartment (fluid within cells) and 1/4th extracellular (blood circulation, lymph, intestinal fluid).

Body composition of healthy body –
@@@@##$Table

Percentage of Different Elements of Total Body Weight

Nutrients Male Female
Proteins 17.0% 8.5%
Fats 13.0% 22.0%
Carbohydrates 1.5% 1.5%
Water 62.0% 62.0%
Minerals 6.0% 6.0%

TOTAL 100% 100%

Mineral Elements Weight in our body

Calcium and Phosphorous: 2.3 to 3.4%
K,S,Cl,Na,Mg: 0.95%
Fe(Iron): 0.004%
Mn (Magnesium): 0.0003%
Cu (Copper): 0.00015%
Iodine: 0.00004%

Body Fat Percentage Male Female

Essential Body Fat% 21-33 %(M) 8-19 %(F)
Underweight fat% <21% <8%
Obese Fat% Above 33% Above 19%
Elite athlete Fat% 12-22% 5-13%

CALCULATION OF BODY FAT % (BY FORMULA)
1) By Katch and McArdle (1973)
= 0.43 (A) + 0.58(B) + 1.47
A = Triceps B= Subscapular fat folds

2) Absolute (Total) body fat mass (kg)
(Body fat% / 100) * Body Mass

3) Essential fat mass (kg)
= (3/100) * Body Mass

4) Skinfold measurement,
% Fat of body (Male) – [(sum of triceps and calf skinfolds) * 0.735] + 1
% Fat of body (Female) – [(sum of triceps and calf skinfolds) * 0.61] + 5.132]

5) For obesity =

(i) % Body Fat = 100 –[ (%Body water)/0.7 OR
[(495/Density) – 450]

(ii) Body density measurement =
It is measured by an underwater weighing machine. The density of normal weight subject is known be 1.0629 gm/ml at 37 degree C and density of obese tissue is 0.947 gm/ml at 37 degree C.

(iii) Body Mass Index –

(iv) Skinfold Fat Thickness = A skinfold caliper is used to determine the thickness of a skinfold. With the aid of skinfold measurement, a prediction of total body fat mass can be made. The measurements are based on the hypothesis that the body fat is equally distributed over the body and that the thickness of the skinfolds is a measure for subcutaneous fat.

a) For Men = 1.1017 – ( 0.000282 * A) – (0.000736 * B) – (0.000883 * C)
[ A = Abdominal, B = Chest, C = Arm]
b) For Women = 1.0764 – ( 0.00081 * A) – (0.00088 * B)
[ A = Iliac Skinfold, B=Arm Skinfold]

6) The Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR) and the waist circumference
Because not only malnutrition or a low body weight is a threat to your health, but also being overweight. We also mention the Waist-Hip Ratio and the waist circumference. With this method patients with (an increased risk of) cardiovascular disease can be detected.

For example, This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement (W ÷ H). For example, a person with a 30″ (76 cm) waist and 38″ (97 cm) hips has a waist-hip ratio of about 0.78.

The Body Mass Index (BMI) and body weight do not give enough information
about a patient’s body composition. Measuring the fat free mass gives us the extra information we need.

The body composition can be measured in several ways. Unfortunately non of these techniques is a golden standard. That is why different techniques are combined in a full Nutritional Assessment.

1) Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)

This indirect method introduced in the 1980s for measuring body composition is based on the conduction of an alternating electrical current applied to the human body.

BIA determines the electrical impedance, or the opposition to the flow of an electric current through body tissues. A flow of an electric current passes easily through tissues containing a lot of water and electrolytes, such as blood and muscles.

Fat mass, air and bone are harder to pass. Therefore, the larger the fat free mass, bigger the capacity of the body to lead the electric current.

This way, the water compartments of the body can be determined. The intracellular (ICW) and the extracellular water (ECW) together form the total body water (TBW). The TBW can be used to estimate fat-free body mass. and, by difference with body weight, body fat.

2) Calculating ideal weight

A person’s ideal weight can be calculated by measuring the wrist circumference or elbow breadth. The latter is a more valid method, because the wrist circumference is influenced by a person’s body weight, and especially the fat percentage.

Different physique.
People who have undergone an amputation can have a different physique. It is often hard to assess how this affects a person’s body weight. According to Brunnstom (1992) the contribution of the individual body parts on the total body weight is as follows:

Head: 7%
Trunk: 43%
Whole arm: 6.5%
Upper Arm : 3,5%
Forearm : 2,3%
Hand: 0,8%
7. Whole leg: 18,5%
8. Femur: 11,6%
9. Lower leg: 5,3%
10. Foot: 1,8%

6) Hydrostatic Underwater Weighing Machine

Hydrostatic underwater weighing derives body composition from body density and body volume. It uses Archimedes’ principle of displacement.

It is based upon the classic two- component (2-C) model of body composition which assumes that body weight is composed of fat free mass (FFM) with a constant density of
1.10 kg/L, and fat mass (FM) with a constant density of 0.90 kg/L. The density of the whole body, therefore, depends upon the relative size of these two components.

As bone and muscle are denser than water, a person with a larger percentage of fat free mass will weigh more in the water, and have a lower percent body fat.

Conversely, fat is less dense than water. Therefore, a large amount of fat mass will make the body lighter in the water and have a higher percent body fat.

Body density is required to calculate percentage body fat. It is calculated using the following:

Participant’s weight outside water (Ma)
Participant’s weight entirely submerged in water (Mw)
Density of water in which participant is immersed (Dw)
Residual volume (estimated or actual) (RV)

The substitution of these values in the given formula estimate the body density:
Body density = Ma / [(Ma – Mw) / Dw – RV]
Once body density has been calculated from the data obtained, body composition can be estimated.

The most commonly used equations for estimating the percent of body fat from density are as follows:
Siri Percent fat = [(495 / body density) – 450] * 100
Brozek Percent fat = [(4.570 / body density) – 4.142] * 100

7) Bone Densitometry (DEXA, DXA)

Bone densitometry, also called dual- energy x-ray absorptiometry, DEXA or DXA, is an enhanced form of x-ray, uses a very small dose of ionizing radiation to produce pictures of the inside of the body (usually the lower (or lumbar) spine and hips) to measure bone loss.

It is commonly used to diagnose osteoporosis, to assess an individual’s risk for developing osteoporotic fractures.
The whole body is sometimes scanned.

Peripheral devices that use x-ray or ultrasound are sometimes used to screen for
low bone mass, mostly at the forearm. In some communities, a CT scan with special software can also be used to diagnose or monitor low bone mass (QCT).

8) Air displacement plethysmography (BOD POD)

The BOD POD Gold Standard Body Composition Tracking System is an air displacement plethysmography which uses whole-body densitometry to determine body composition (body fat and fat-free mass) in adults and children, and can accommodate a wide range of populations.

A full test requires only about 5 minutes, and provides highly accurate, safe, comfortable, and fast test results.

9) Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI)

Imaging Techniques

There are several imaging techniques for determining total and regional body composition. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides cross-sectional images that can be used to determine total adiposity and are one of the most accurate tools available for quantifying body composition at a tissue level.

Along with computed tomography (CT), MRI is often considered the criterion measure for assessing intra-abdominal fat and skeletal muscle in vivo.

Other imaging techniques such as dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and ultrasound are also useful clinical techniques for assessing total and intra-abdominal (visceral) adiposity.

The strengths and weaknesses of DEXA and ultrasonography are addressed in another section.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging: How it Works

MRI uses the interaction between strong magnetic fields and hydrogen nuclei (protons)—which are abundant in all biological tissues—to create cross- sectional images of the body.

Unlike CT, MRI is not known to have any adverse side effects and is therefore the preferred method for assessing whole body tissue composition. However, MRI takes much longer to acquire images, and analyzing these images is a more complex and time-consuming process.

Weight Loss

Note – Sometimes there is a weight loss by dehydration, chronic fatigue, eating disorder, menstrual dysfunction, losses of 2-4% of an athlete’s weight through dehydration can impair performances.

Overweight = 10-20% above normal ideal weight
Obese = more then 20% above normal body weight
Underweight= Less then 10% of ideal body weight

Water Content in the body

Muscles: 75 – 88%
Blood: 85- 90%
Teeth: 5%
Bone: 20 – 25%
0.4 gm of water is found per gram of protein.
0.2 gm of water is found per gram of fat.
Daily recommended of Water – (Normal Women = 2.7L/day)
(Normal Men = 3.7L/day)

Water Lost –
Each day as urine = 1500 ml – 2000ml Each day by skin = Depends on activity
Total water lost by body (without exercise) = 2500ml/day

Sports Nutrition

Balance Diet:-

• Balanced diet is the intake of that food having adequate amounts of each nutrient & the energy from the food nourishes each cell, tissues , organs to support normal growth and development.

“ You are exactly what you eat”.

Elements of balance Diet

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• water

Nutrition

• Nutrition is the science that deals with the food and its uses by the body.
• Father of Nutrition – Lavoisier

FOOD is the main source of energy .
Energy from the nutrients is measured in heat units called CALORIE OR KILOCALORIE.

1 KILOCALORIE = 1000 CALORIE

The chemicals in food , which the body need for proper growth & development and provide nourishment to the body are NUTRIENTS.

Functions of Nutrition
Supply energy to the body.
Build and repair body tissues.
Regulate body processes.

1. Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are the main source of energy from all nutrients which provide quick energy to the body and are not stored in the body too long.

• It is a compound of C , H , O.

Two Types

a. Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides)- these are simple sugars use to provide a quick form of energy. Example- glucose & sugars ( potatoes , carrots , milk products)

b. Disaccharides – their energy content is more than simple sugars but release energy very slowly.

c. Polysaccharides– their energy content is more than disaccharides.
Examples :-

Monosaccharides – glucose, galactose, fructose. [Monosaccharides, other than glucose is not important in the body

Disaccharides- Sucrose , Lactose , Maltose , breads , cereals , whole pulses. [Disaccharides first split into simple sugar in intestine to enter in blood stream]

Polysaccharides- Starch , Glycogen , Dextrin, Dietary fibers.

Simple Carbohydrates contain vitamins & minerals whereas complex carbohydrates contain vitamins , minerals & fibers.

Sucrose – [Fructose +Glucose] termed as simple sugar.

Maltose – [glucose +glucose], whenever starch is being broken down it is made.

Lactose – [glucose + galactose], sugar of milk made by mammals.

Important points about carbohydrates –
Glucose is an important carbohydrate, provides 55-60% of our total calorie.
Carbohydrates lasts upto 90 mins.
Excess of carbohydrates are converted into fats by the liver & stored in adipose tissue.

CARBOHYDRATES –GLUCOSE—- GLYCOGEN — EXTRA GLUCOSE STORED AS FAT
Carbohydrates – Glucose – Glycogen – Extra Glucose Stored as fat

1 gm of carbohydrates = 4 calories.
Consumption of excess sugar prior to exercise reduces performance.
19% of glycogen is stored in the liver.
Pancreas detects first extra glucose in the body.
Liver converts extra glucose or energy components into fats.
Daily requirement of Carbohydrates are –

By USDA 2005, 45-65% of total Calories and not less than 130 gm / day.

Carbohydrates For Training

General Training: 5-7 gm of carbs/kg of body weight (2.3- 3gm/lb)
Endurance training: 7-10 gm/kg of body weight (3-4.5gm/lb)
Ultra-Endurance training: 11gm/kg or (5gm/lb)

FORMULA – NET Carbs(g) = Total Carbs(g) – fiber (g) – sugar alcohols (g) – glycerine(g)

Assumption is that fiber, sugar alcohols and glycerine do not contribute significant amounts of calories and don’t have to be counted.

FIBERS – Most fibers are polysaccharides made up of glucose, just as starch but indigestible.

Functions –
1) Fiber carries out water from the body.
2) It has hypoglycemia and hypolipidemic effect.

Note –
Hypoglycemia – Lack of glucose in the body 60-70mg/100 ml of blood.
Hyperglycemia – 170mg/100 ml of glucose or above.
Hyperlipidemia – elevated amount of lipids (fats, cholesterol or triglycerides) or lipoproteins in the body.
Hypolipidemia – decreased amount of lipids (fats, cholesterol or tri-glycerides) or lipoproteins in the body.

Daily requirement of fibre – (By RDA) 25-40gm/day.

Male – 38gm/day
Female – 25 gm/day

NOTE – Low carbs. food could be high in calories and high carbs. food could be low in calories.

• Glycemic Index = It determines how rapidly a particular carbohydrate food may raise food glucose.
  Formula = (Blood glucose response over 2 hours to 50gm of test food) / (Blood glucose response over 2 hours of glucose or bread)

NOTE – Formula could be with or without 100.

-Glycemic Load = It determines how much impact a carbohydrate food may have on blood glucose levels.
Formula = (GI * CHO) / 100 NOTE – CHO is a carb. In gm/serving.

Sources of Carbohydrates
– rice , wheat, maize, all types of root crops like potatoes, legumes etc.

2. Fats

Fat is the largest reserve of stored energy available for activity and provides higher concentration of energy of all nutrients.

Fats also contain C,H,O.
Fats and oils are the lipids (a family of compounds soluble in organic solvents which includes the triglycerides (fats & oil), Phospholipids and cholesterols)
Fats – Lipids, that are solid at room temperature at 25 degree C. or 70 degree F.
Oils – Lipids, that are solid at room temperature at 25 degree C. or 70 degree F.
Fat cells respond to the call for energy by breaking up stored triglycerides. Fats are stored in a body as Triglycerides.
Fatty acids are the building blocks of Fats.
About 95% of lipids in foods and in human body are triglycerides and others are
phospholipids and cholesterol.
Triglycerides are made up of 1) Glycerol, 2) 3 fatty acids.
1gm of Fats = 9 Kcal or 9.45 Kcal (by bomb calorimeter)

Three Types of Fatty Acid

i. Saturated fats – Bad fat which is solid at room temperature because carbon atoms are fully saturated with hydrogens with the single bond. ( egg , cheese, butter , etc., ).

ii. Unsaturated fats – Good Fat which is liquid at room temperature because carbons atoms are not fully saturated ( e.g. – olive oil, mustard oil).

iii. Trans fats – created by man in converting liquid into solid.( all processed food, chips , etc., )

LIPOPROTEINS – Fats always travel from one place to another mixed with protein called Lipoprotein.

These are of two types –

1) LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein). It is Bad one.
Examples of fatty acids –

2) HDL (High Density Lipoprotein). It is good one.

Example of Essential Fatty acids –

Essential fatty acids (EFA’s) are polyunsaturated fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize and therefore must obtain from the diet.

There are two families of EFAs: omega-6 and omega-3.
The most important omega-6 fatty acids are linoleic Acid (LA), gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), and Arachidonic acid (AA). The most important omega-3 fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

OMEGA – Letter of the greek alphabet (ɷ), It is a category of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Omega 6 – Fatty acids have their endmost double bond six carbon back along the chain. Linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, can be found primarily in seeds, nuts, grains and legumes.

Omega 3 – Fatty acids having 3 carbon back. It is also called fish oil. Omega-3 fatty acids can be found in fish and certain plant oils.
Recommended – (Ratio of omega 6 to omega 3 is 5:1) Omega 6 – 0.6% of total energy.
Omega 3 – 1.2 % of total energy.

The human body can synthesize all the fats from the carbs., proteins, etc., except three –

1) Linoleic acid – It gets irritation, infection, dehydration when missing from diet. Infants are especially in need of this and human breast’s milk has much higher % than cow’s milk. Can’t get through vegetable oils.

2) Linolenic acid – It is a raw material from which the body makes hormone-like substances. It protects us.

3) Arachidonic acid – Arachidonic acid is an essential fatty acid, which is consumed in small amounts in our regular diets. It is considered an “essential” fatty acid body.

Arachidonic acid can be found mainly in the fatty parts of meats and fish (largely red meat), so vegetarians usually have lower levels of arachidonic acid in the body than those with omnivorous diets.

Example of non-essential fatty acids – Palmitic, oleic acid, butyric acid(butter).

Cholesterol

One of the sterols, manufactured in the body (liver) for a variety of purposes and found in animal derived foods.

Cholesterol makes up 10% of fat.

Cholesterol intake – Less than 200

LDL = <100 should be.

HDL = 60 or higher

Triglycerides = < 150

• Cholesterol is not an essential nutrient as it is formed in the body in the form of BILE. A bile is a mixture of compounds made from cholesterol by the liver and stored in gall- bladder.
• Cholesterol is needed by the body for synthesis of sex and adrenal hormones.
• Women have higher HDL then men. Non-smokers also have higher HDL than smokers.
• Quantity

Important points

• 1gm of fats provides 9 calories. According to Bomb calorimeter – 9.45 Calories.
• It takes approx. 6 hours to convert fat into usable form.
• Fats stored in body muscles in the form of fatty acids.
• 1 fatty acid = monoglycerides
• 2 fatty acids = diglycerides
• 3 fatty acids = tri or polyglycerides
• More than 95% of stored fats is in the form of triglycerides in the human body.
• Diet should not exceed 30% o total calories intake or 300 mg per day.
• Fat – Fatty Acid – Glycero – Carbohydrates – Glucose – Glycogen
• Glucose – Fragment Fatty Acid – Triglycerides – Fat Store
• Fats must be less than 80 gm per day.

Functions –

• It is important for the proper functioning of the body.
• Fatty acids provide raw materials, which help to control blood pressure.
• Fat produces heat in the release of energy.
• Tissues, except those of CNS, can utilize fat as a source of energy in the presence of O2.
• Fat is a carrier of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, & K.
• The essential fatty acids are needed for the maintenance of body functions.

Sourses of Fat= Animal sources include meat , poultry, & dairy products like milk, cream , cheese , ice cream & vegetable sources include palm & coconut oil .

3. Proteins

These are the building blocks of the body.
Proteins consists of amino acids that combines to make muscles , bone , tendons , skin , hair , etc.,
It contains C,H,O,N.
Protein contains 6% of Nitrogen.
1 gm of protein produces 4 calories, or 4.1 (by bomb calorimeter)
RDA for protein is 10-15% daily.
Protein molecules are much larger and complex than fats.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

Amino Acid–

All amino acids contain a carbon atom in the middle of the molecule, the alpha-carbon
This atom is surrounded by three chemical groups.
One is an amino group -NH2
The second one is a carboxyl group -OOOH
The third group is denoted by R. This is the variable radical group and is different for every amino acid. This R group makes the amino acid unique.

Types of Proteins

i. Non Essential Proteins

• They are either produced in our bodies or obtained from protein breakdowns.

They are – Alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

ii) Essential Amino Acid
– There are 9 amino acids which have to be taken from food and not made in the body. These are the acids that cannot be synthesized in our bodies. We must rely on food sources to obtain these amino acids.

They are

• Leucine
• Isoleucine
• Lysine
• Threonine
• Methionine
• Phenylalanine

Protein Consumption

Normal man use – .8gm / kg of body weight

Strength Training – 1.4-1.8gm/ kg of body weight
Endurance training – 1.2-1.4 gm / kg of body weight

Important points –
i. It works as a source of energy only in starvation otherwise it is not a source of energy.
ii. 20% of energy should come from proteins.
iii. Gelatin is the only animal protein which is incomplete protein.
iv. No digestion of protein takes place in the mouth, it takes place in the stomach.
v. Alanine is a non-essential protein that can be oxidized to give 10% of energy required.
vi. Leucine is a whey protein and an essential amino acid used for muscle building.
vii. Every fluid contains proteins except bile & urine.
viii. It should be continuously taken because it could not be stored in the body for so long.
ix. Protein no more than 1.7gm/kg provide an additional advantage. (Acceptable Macronutrients Distribution ranges (AMDR) of protein is 10%-35%).
x. Sources – all meat, egg & other dairy products, pulses etc.
xi. Protein Amino Acids Glucose

Functions

i. Proteins are the main component of muscles, organs and glands.
ii. The cells of the muscles and ligaments are maintained with proteins.
iii. Protein is needed for the growth and development of children.
iv. Proteins is required for the formation of hormones, enzymes, etc

4. Vitamins

Vitamins are obtained from food, except from vitamin D and vitamin K , which the body can produce.
There are 13 vitamins needed by the body.
Important vitamins are – A, C, D, E, K, B1, B2, B3, B12.
Vitamins are essential for metabolism of fat & carbohydrates.

There are two types :-

i. Fat Soluble – vitamins include vitamin A, D, E, K & stored in liver and in body fat.

ii. Water Soluble – vitamin B ( B1, B2, B3, B12), vitamin C.

Fat soluble vitamins should not exceed the value coz they cause toxic accumulation.
Only Vitamin B,C,E have beneficial role in sports performance.
Vitamin A(Beta- Carotene) Vitamin C, E, are highly antioxidant.

Fat Soluble

a. Vitamin A – (Active form – Retinol, Precursor form – Carotene)
It is also known as Antixerophthalmic Vitamin.
Disease leads to night blindness, irregular growth of teeth, Skin and hair problems, and reproduction problems.
Functions- needed for normal growth & keeping eyes & skin healthy.

b. Vitamin D – ( Also called as Ergocalciferol, Cholecalciferol, Ergosterol)
Deficiency – RICKETS (in children), Osteomalacia (in adults)
Disease affects children & in which the bones are soft & out of shape. Also known as “sunshine vitamin”.
Functions – important for formation of strong bones & teeth. Aids in absorption of calcium and phosphorus.

c. Vitamin E – (Also called Tocopherol and Tocotrienol)
It is a bodyguard for other substances, it serves as an antioxidant. By being destroyed itself, it protects the polysaccharides fats and other fat soluble substances such as vitamin A from destruction by Oxygen.
It protects RBC and WbC.
Deficiency causes nerve problem and very rarely seen. Deficiency is caused in those with very low level of Fat. It also leads to Alzheimer’s diseases.
Delay in Vitamin E cause Hypoprothrombinemia.
Functions- important for the protection of cell membrane & also important for the formation of RBC.

4. Vitamin k – (Also called Phylloquinone)
   Deficiency causing excessive bleeding (Hemorrhage), Anemia.
   Functions- helps in clotting of blood. It also helps Vitamin D in helping to regulate blood calcium levels.

Water Soluble

I. VITAMIN B ( deficiency causes BERIBERI)
It has been differentiated into atleast eleven separate and distinct chemical entities.

Out of which eight are required by the body.
They are mainly
i. Vitamin B1 – It is also known as thiamin.
ii. Vitamin B2- It is also known as riboflavin.
iii. Vitamin B3- It is also known as niacin.
iv. Vitamin B5- It is also known as Pantothenic acid.
v. Vitamin B6- It is also known as Pyridoxine.
vi. Vitamin B7- It is also known as Biotin.
vii. Vitamin B9- It is also known as (Folate or Folic acid).
viii.Vitamin B12- It is also known as Cyanocobalamin.

II. VITAMIN C (also called Ascorbic Acid)

Deficiency known as scurvy.
Disease causing gums swell up & bleed. Leads to joint pain, Retards of growth in infants. It leads to shortness of breath.

Functions –

Needed for maintenance of ligaments, tendons, & other supportive tissues & strong blood vessels.
Removal of stress
The formation Hemoglobin and development of RBC by influencing the absorption of iron for hemoglobin.

5. Minerals

Minerals contain elements needed by our body in small quantities but these are essential for proper growth and functioning of the body.

They are supplied in the form of salts by different foods.

They are not a source of energy but they help other nutrients in their production.

It accounts for approx. 4% of total body weight.

21 minerals are required by the body.

Macro-minerals – body need >100 mg/day

Micro-mineral – body need < 100 mg/day

Calcium is the most abundant mineral needed in a body. It constitutes about 40% of total mineral content.

Phosphorus – 22% of total minerals content in a diet.

Out of six nutrients, minerals contain H2 and O2 as same with water whereas four nutrients contain atoms of Carbon(C).

6. Water

Water is an important element of balanced diet. It makes up almost 70% of our body weight. Life process cant occur without water. Water plays an important role in the body metabolism.

• It has been estimated that we can survive loss upto 40% of our body weight in fats, carbs, and proteins but for water, reduction of 9-12% loss of water can be fatal.
• Body shows a reduction in performance if 2% of body weight got reduced because of dehydration.
• Electrolyte lost in sweat is 99% of water.
• Sweat contains large amount of Sodium and chlorine but little K, Calcium and Mg.
• Kidneys play another significant role in electrolyte balance.
• Daily recommended of Water – (Normal Women = 2.7L/day)
• (Normal Men = 3.7L/day)

Recommended for fluid replacement, before, during and after exercise.

2 hours before exercise, 400 – 600ml of fluid.
During exercise, the athlete should consume 150-350 ml before 15-20 min each
bout.
After exercise, 450 – 675 ml for every pound.
Water is stored in a body at the rate of about 2.6gm of water with each gm of glycogen. An increase or decrease produces a change in body weight of from 0.5 to 1.4 kg.
Although liver glycogen can be depleted totally after 2 hours of exercise at 70% VO2max. and replenished within a few hours.

Muscle glycogen resynthesis in a slower process taking several days. During the first two hours of the exercise, the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesize is much higher than later in recovery.

Functions –

i. In the digestive system, water helps to break down complex food metabolism.
ii. Water transports food, wastes and gases throughout the body.
iii. It keeps the body cool through transpiration.
iv. It helps in the circulation of blood.
v. It saves the bones from becoming brittle and dry.
vi. Water is more important than food.
vii. It is present in the body as a
Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid
viii. It keeps nutrients in solution form so that they may be absorbed through the intestinal walls.
ix. It transports nutrients through blood to all the tissues.

Important Points

• Vitamin D and A are stored in body and may cause harmful effects if taken in large quantity.
• Probiotics – Non-digestible food products.
• Anemia – low concentration of hemoglobin, < 13gm/dl in men, and <12gm/dl in women.
• Cellulose – Fibrous material found only in plants.
• Lathyrism – Disease caused by pulses adulteration.
• Saccharin – Artificial sweetener.
• Osteopenia – when calcium is removed from its side and leads to osteoporosis.
• Osteoporosis – Decrease of bone density (caused by lack of Vitamin D).
• Hyponatremia – Serum sodium levels drops below 130 nmol/litre.
• Proteins contain 16% of nitrogen.
• Vitamin C and E are highly touted antioxidants.
• Amenorrhea – Lack of menstruation.
• Lumbago – Pain in lower back
• Vitamin B12 – It is also known as Extrinsic factor.
• Cellulose – It is a fibrous material found only in plants.
• Pectin – A starch used to make jelly.
• Most toxic vitamin – Vitamin D
• Liposuction – Cosmetic surgery of fatty acids of the body.
• Myopia – A disease in which distant objects are not visible.
• Hyperopia – It is a condition in which near objects are not visible.
• Hypoxia – Lack of oxygen
• Ischemia – local disturbance in blood circulation
• Nausea – A feeling of illness in the digestive tract.
• Asphyxia – Loss of Consciousness due to interruption of breathing.
• Paget’s disease – Sometimes described as a “cotton wool”.
• Alcohol is also organic and nutrient but not used in body for growth, it contributes to fats. Its consumption – 1.7oz/day (1gm – 9Cal.)

Deficiencies

Deficiency of Iron – Anemia
Deficiency of iodine – Goiter
Protein deficiency diseases – Kwashiorkor (red body)
Deficiency of vitamin D – Osteomalacia (Lack of calcium in bones)
Deficiency of Niacin (vitamin B3) – Pellagra
Deficiency of vitamin K –Hypoprothrombinemia Deficiency of thiamine- Beri-Beri

UGC NET Physical Education Unit 6 Notes MCQ and Questions With Answer

1. According to Pasteur statements which
   one of the following is true
   Living organisms discriminate between
   stereoisomers
   Fermentation is a aerobic process
   Living organisms doesn’t discriminate
   between stereoisomers
   Both a and b
   Answer: A
2. “I found floating therin earthly particles,
   some green streaks, spirally wound serpent- wise, and orderly arranged,the
   whole circumstance of each of thesestreaks was about the thickness of a hair
   on one’s head”…. These words are of
   Leeuwenhoek
   A. Jenner
   Pasteur
   Koch
   Answer: A
3. The principle light- trapping pigment molecule in plants, Algae,and cyanobacteria is
   Chlorophyll a
   Chlorophyll b
   Porphyrin
   Rhodopsin
   Answer: A
4. During Bio Geo chemical cycle some
   amount of elemental carbon wasutilized by the microorganisms. The phenomenon is called as
   Dissimilation
   Immobilization
   Decomposition
   Neutralization
   Answer: B
5. Who demonstrated that open tubes of
   broth remained free of bacteria when air was free of dust.
   Abbc Spallanzani
   John Tyndall
   Francesco Redi
   Pasteur
   Answer: B
6. Reverse isolation would be appropriate
   for
   a patient with tuberculosis
   a patient who has had minor surgery
   a patient with glaucoma
   a patient with leukemia
   Answer: A
7. The symptome “ general feeling of illness
   and discomfort “ is called
   Cystitis
   Malaise
   Anaphylactic shock
   Arthritis
   Answer: B
8. On soybean which of the following forms symbiotism
   Azotobacter paspali
   Rhizobium
   Nostoc
   Bradyrhizobium
   Answer: D
9. Who provide the evidence that bacteriophage nucleic acid but not protein enters the host cell during infection
   Alfred D.Hershey & Leonard Tatum in 1951.
   Alfred D.Hershey & Zindar Lederberg in 1951.
   Alfred D.Hershey & Martha Chasein 1952.
   Alfred D.Hershey & Macleod in 1952.

Answer: C

10. Spirulina belongs to
    Xanthophyceae
    Cyanophyceae
    Rhodophyceae
    Phaeophyceae
    Answer: B
11. The first antibody to contact invading
    microorganisms was
    IgG
    IgM
    IgA
    IgD
    Answer: B
12. The light emitted by luminescent bacteria
    is mediated by the enzyme
    Coenzyme Q
    Luciferase
    Lactate dehydrogenase
    Carboxylase reductase
    Answer: C
13. Pick out the vector using in human
    Genome project
    Phagemid vector
    Yeast artificial chromosomes
    Cosmid vectors
    Yeast episomal plasmids
    Answer: B
14. Salt and sugar preserve foods because
    they
    Make them acid
    Produce a hypotonic environment
    Deplete nutrients
    Produce a hypertonic environment

Answer: D

15. In a fluorescent microscope the objective
    lens is made of
    Glass
    Quartz
    Polythene
    None of these
    Answer: C
16. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogenis by
    means of
    Biological process
    Lightning
    Ultraviolet light
    All of the above
    Answer: D
17. Which one of the following fungi is the
    Most serious threat in a bone marrow transplant unit?
    Candida albicans
    Aspergillus
    Blastomyces
    Cryptococcus
    Answer: B
18. Direct microscopic count can be done with the aid of

Neuberg chamber
Anaerobic chamber
Mineral oil
Olive oil
Answer: A

Final Words

From the above article you must have gained knowledge about UGC NET Physical Education Unit 6 notes Health Education. We hope that with the help of these notes you will be successful.